- – A Level History CAIE Revision

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Initial dissatisfaction with the Congress of Vienna (1815) which ignored the majority of Italian nationalist demands.
Rise of the secret societies like the Carbonari, pushing for liberal and nationalist reforms.
The influence and role of key individuals, such as Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel II, in driving Italy towards Unification.
Failures and successes of the Revolutions of 1848-1849 in Italy.
The Significance of the Wars of Italian Unification (1859-1861), spearheaded by Kingdom of Sardinia with the help of France against Austria.
Formation and expension of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, although not fully unified.
Completion of Unification with the annexation of Rome in 1871.

Initial absence of liberal and national spirit in the German Confederation (1815) established by the Congress of Vienna.
The gradual rise of liberalism and nationalism among German people, especially after the Zollverein (Customs Union) in 1834.
Pivotal role of Prussia in the German Unification, under the leadership of Otto Von Bismarck.
Importance of the failed Revolution of 1848 in triggering a surge of nationalism and liberalism.
Emergence of Realpolitik with the appointment of Bismarck as the Prussian Minister-President in 1862.
Significance of the Three Wars (Schleswig Wars, Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian War) in the unification process.
Proclamation of the German Empire in 1871, marking the completion of the German Unification.

Concepts of liberalism and nationalism driving political changes in Europe during the mid-19th century.
Interplay of nationalistic revolutions and liberal constitutional movements in shaping the politics in Italy and Germany.
The role of educational and economic reforms, in spreading liberal and national ideas.
Examine how the ideals of liberal and national unity were both a cause and consequence of political change.