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Unification of Italy (1815-1871)

• Initial dissatisfaction with the Congress of Vienna (1815) which ignored the majority of Italian nationalist demands.
• Rise of the secret societies like the Carbonari, pushing for liberal and nationalist reforms.
• The influence and role of key individuals, such as Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel II, in driving Italy towards Unification.
• Failures and successes of the Revolutions of 1848-1849 in Italy.
• The Significance of the Wars of Italian Unification (1859-1861), spearheaded by Kingdom of Sardinia with the help of France against Austria.
• Formation and expension of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, although not fully unified.
• Completion of Unification with the annexation of Rome in 1871.

Unification of Germany (1815-1871)

• Initial absence of liberal and national spirit in the German Confederation (1815) established by the Congress of Vienna.
• The gradual rise of liberalism and nationalism among German people, especially after the Zollverein (Customs Union) in 1834.
• Pivotal role of Prussia in the German Unification, under the leadership of Otto Von Bismarck.
• Importance of the failed Revolution of 1848 in triggering a surge of nationalism and liberalism.
• Emergence of Realpolitik with the appointment of Bismarck as the Prussian Minister-President in 1862.
• Significance of the Three Wars (Schleswig Wars, Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian War) in the unification process.
• Proclamation of the German Empire in 1871, marking the completion of the German Unification.

Liberalism and Nationalism

• Concepts of liberalism and nationalism driving political changes in Europe during the mid-19th century.
• Interplay of nationalistic revolutions and liberal constitutional movements in shaping the politics in Italy and Germany.
• The role of educational and economic reforms, in spreading liberal and national ideas.
• Examine how the ideals of liberal and national unity were both a cause and consequence of political change.