Ethical theories and moral decision-making

Ethical Theories

Utilitarianism: a consequentialist theory that proposes the morally right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people. Key philosophers include Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
Kantian Ethics or Deontology: developed by Immanuel Kant, this theory asserts that the rightness or wrongness of actions does not depend on their consequences but on whether they fulfil our duty. Core concepts include the Categorical Imperative and the notion of treating humans as ‘ends’ rather than ‘means’.
Virtue Ethics: this theory emphasises the role of character and virtues in moral life, as opposed to rules (Deontology) or consequences (Utilitarianism). Influential figures include Aristotle and Alasdair MacIntyre.
Relativism: the view that moral truths are not universal but are instead determined by culture, society, or personal preference.
Natural Law Theory: proposed by Thomas Aquinas, this ethical theory suggests that human beings can discern moral truth through the application of reason and by observing the natural world.
Divine Command Theory: moral behaviour is determined fundamentally by divine command; what is morally right or wrong is defined by what God commands or forbids.

Moral Decision Making Concepts

Moral Absolutism: the belief that there is a universal set of moral principles that apply to everyone, and morality is not influenced by personal or societal factors.
Moral Relativism: opposes moral absolutism, asserting that moral judgments are determined, or relative, to the cultural, social, or individual context in which they occur.
Principle of Double Effect: a guideline in moral theology for evaluating the permissibility of an action that causes a serious harm as a side effect of promoting a good end.
Act vs Rule Utilitarianism: Act utilitarianism asserts that we should always choose our actions based on what will cause the greatest amount of happiness in each individual occasion, whereas rule utilitarianism suggests we should live by rules that, in general, lead to the greatest amount of happiness.
The Ethics of Care, originated by Carol Gilligan, rooted in feminine thought, focusing more on interpersonal relationships and care for others.
Moral Subjectivism vs Moral Objectivism: Moral subjectivism holds that our moral claims are made true or false by our attitudes or feelings, while moral objectivism suggests moral truths are independent of human beliefs or perceptions.
Conscience in moral decision making: an inner sense of what is right or wrong in one’s conduct or motives, impelling one toward right actions.