Dynasties and rulers

Islamic Empires

Islamic Caliphates: After the death of Prophet Muhammad, the leaders of the Muslim community were called Caliphs. The caliphates emerged, including the Umayyad, Abbasid, and Fatimid Caliphates.
Umayyad Caliphate (661-750): This was the second of the four major caliphates after the death of Muhammad. Damascus was the capital. The Umayyads were overthrown in a rebellion led by the Abbasids.
Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258): Following the Umayyad, the Abbasid Caliphate shifted the centre of power eastward to Baghdad. This was a period of cultural and scientific flourishing known as the Islamic Golden Age.
Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171): This was a Shia Islamic caliphate that spanned a large area of North Africa, from the Red Sea in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west.

Byzantine Empire (330-1453): The continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces, with Constantinople as its capital. The empire experienced periods of great military and cultural success, and periods of decline.
Justinian I (527-565): Known for his ambitious building projects and for his codification of Roman law, forming the basis of modern civil law.

Mongol Empire (1206-1368): The largest contiguous land empire in history, initiated by Genghis Khan. Political, cultural and trade exchanges were encouraged during the period known as Pax Mongolica.
Genghis Khan: Founder of the Mongol Empire, Khan led the Mongols to conquer numerous tribes in North Asia.
Kublai Khan: Grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty in China.

Charlemagne (768-814): As King of the Franks and Lombards, Charlemagne united much of western and central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. Named Emperor by Pope Leo III.
Capetian Dynasty (987-1328): This royal house of France started with Hugh Capet. The dynasty’s members slowly increased their power and expanded their domain across France.
Plantagenet Dynasty (1154-1485): Originating from France, this royal house came to power through the marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, to Geoffrey, Count of Anjou.

Kievan Rus’ (882-1240): A federation of Slavic tribes, which included the territories of modern-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Russia. The Kievan Rus’ adopted Christianity under the rule of Vladimir the Great.
Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal (1157-1331): Formed from the northeastern part of Kievan Rus’, Vladimir-Suzdal laid the foundation of the modern Russian nation.
Tsar Ivan III: Referred to as Ivan the Great, he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde over the Rus’, renovated the Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state.