Law, governing institutions and administration

Islamic Empires

Islamic Law (Sharia): Abstract or theoretical legal thought that helped to shape the legal system of various Islamic empires.
Qadi Courts: Judicial assemblies in Islamic societies echoed in every city, town, and village. The Qadi (Judge) had jurisdiction over civil disputes and could also oversee criminal cases.
Dhimmi System: Under this system, non-Muslim subjects of Islamic states were granted protection of their lives, property, and freedom of religion but were levied a special tax.

Imperial Administration: The Emperor was an autocrat who ruled by the grace of God. The Byzantine bureaucracy was a complex system of offices and titles, many dating back to the Roman Empire.
Ecclesiastical Law: The influence of the Orthodox Church was evident in the compiling of the Justinian code of laws in the 6th century, which had an impact on legal systems in Europe and the Middle East.

“Yassa”: The secret law code created by Genghis Khan, which informed governing institutions, military structure, and legal practices.
Kuriltai: Political and military assemblies held by Mongols and some Turkic peoples when making major decisions, particularly when electing a new Khan.
Decentralized Control: The Mongol Empire was vast, requiring a system of regional governors and administrators to oversee various areas, while ultimate power still resided with the Great Khan.

Feudalism: A medieval European political system defined by relationships of loyalty and duties among nobles. It comprised three key elements: lords, vassals, and fiefs.
Magna Carta: The charter of liberties set out by King John of England in 1215, forming the basis for powerful governing concepts such as the rule of law and habeas corpus.

Veche: The earliest form of public assembly in Slavic lands, particularly in Kievan Rus’, used to decide on key issues and propose new laws.
Boyars: The highest-ranking aristocrats in Kievan Rus’ and later principalities, who had significant influence over the princes.
Sudebnik: The legal code introduced by Ivan III in 1497, marking the significant centralization of power and an important step in defining the legal system in emerging Russia.