The European Reformation, 1500–64

The Causes of Reformation

Martin Luther, a German monk, is widely seen as the initiator of the Reformation. He questioned some practices of the Roman Catholic Church, particularly the selling of indulgences.
In 1517, Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church, sparking debate about the Church’s teachings and practices.
His views gained support from political leaders and the general public, who were disgruntled with Church corruption, clerical privileges, and the Papacy’s interference in secular affairs.
Printing press advancements enabled rapid spread of Luther’s ideas, sparking a mass movement.

Justification by faith alone was the most significant of Luther’s teachings. He argued that salvation can be attained only through faith, and not by good deeds.
Luther translated the Bible into German, which was revolutionary, as it made religious texts accessible to the common people, previously only available in Latin.
He rejected five of the seven sacraments upheld by the Catholic Church — baptism and the Eucharist were the only ones he kept.
He also proposed that the Church should be a ‘priesthood of all believers’, negating the Church hierarchy and emphasising individual spiritual independence.

The ideas of the Reformation spread across Europe, influencing prominent figures like Johannes Calvin in Geneva and Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich.
King Henry VIII also led a break from the Roman Catholic Church to establish the Church of England, which was initially more about political control than religious change.
Different regions interpreted and adapted Reformation ideas in various ways, leading to the formation of numerous Protestant churches.

The Reformation faced opposition from the Roman Catholic Church, leading to attempts at countering it, collectively known as the Counter-Reformation.
The Council of Trent was a key event in the Counter-Reformation. It reaffirmed Catholic doctrines and addressed corruption within the Church.
Some European countries remained predominantly Catholic, such as Spain and Italy, while others switched to Protestantism or experienced significant religious division.

The Reformation caused significant upheaval in Europe, leading to wars, persecutions, and migrations.
It led to greater emphasis on education and literacy as people were encouraged to read the Bible and interpret it for themselves.
The Reformation also contributed to the process of state-building in Europe as monarchs became head of the Church in their respective countries.
It played a significant role in creating the diverse religious landscape of modern Europe, and it encouraged the spirit of questioning and individualism, contributing to the Enlightenment era.