The Political and Military Career of Napoleon, 1799–1815

The Rise of Napoleon, 1799–1804

Napoleon Bonaparte seized political power in France through a coup d’état in 1799, ending the revolutionary period and ushering in the Consulate.
Even though the Consulate was a three-man directorate, real power lay with Napoleon as the First Consul, ultimately leading to his proclamation as Emperor in 1804.
His rise to power was marked by constitutional reforms, including the establishment of a merit-based civil service, the Bank of France, and legal reforms embodied in the Napoleonic Code.

Napoleon the Military Strategist, 1805–1812

Napoleon is remembered for his military prowess, leading the French armies in a series of successful campaigns known as the Napoleonic Wars.
His notable victories include the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 against Austria and Russia, and the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806 against Prussia.
The Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal (1807–1814) and the invasion of Russia in 1812 marked turning points, as these campaigns stretched French resources thin and met with strong resistance.

Continental System and its Fallout

To cripple Britain’s economy and weaken her naval power, Napoleon enacted the Continental System, a large-scale embargo against British goods.
The embargo backfired, hurting European economies, particularly France’s own, and triggered the Peninsular War as Spain and Portugal refused to comply, leading to British intervention.

The Downfall of Napoleon, 1812–1815

The invasion of Russia in 1812 was a major military disaster with much of the Grande Armée perishing in the Russian winter during their retreat from Moscow.
This marked the beginning of Napoleon’s downfall, with France weakened and various powers forming a coalition against France.
Napoleon abdicated following his defeat at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, known as the ‘Battle of Nations’, and was exiled to the island of Elba in 1814.
He escaped from Elba and returned to power in France for a brief period known as the Hundred Days in 1815.
Napoleon faced ultimate defeat in the Battle of Waterloo in mid-1815 when the French army was defeated by the British and Prussian forces, leading to his second abdication and subsequent exile to Saint Helena.

Napoleon’s Legacy

Despite his defeat, Napoleon left a lasting impact on France and Europe, with many of his administrative and legal reforms outlasting his rule.
The Napoleonic Code continues to form the basis of civil law in France and other countries.
His military campaigns remapped Europe, spreading revolutionary ideas, and the rise of nationalism across the continent.
Napoleon’s reign saw significant infrastructural improvements in France, including the establishment of the country’s lycee educational system.
While he is often remembered for his authoritarian rule, he is also credited with stabilising France following the Revolution and setting the groundwork for modern France.