The Chinese Revolution, 1898–1989

The Late Qing Dynasty and the Hundred Days’ Reform

Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) was the last imperial dynasty of China, initially prosperous but later weakened due to a series of challenges.
The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) marked a significant loss to Japan, exposing weaknesses of the Qing regime.
The Hundred Days’ Reform was a failed attempt to modernise China, initiated by the progressive Guangxu Emperor but thwarted by conservatives led by the Empress Dowager Cixi.

The 1911 Revolution, led by Sun Yat-sen and his Tongmenghui organisation, overthrew the Qing Dynasty and created the Republic of China.
Sun Yat-sen is known for his Three Principles of the People: Nationalism, Democracy, and People’s Livelihood, which aimed to revise China’s political and social structure.
Sun’s inability to control and unify different factions resulted in a divided China, leading to the Warlord Era (1916–1928).

The Chinese Civil War (1927–1949) was fought between the nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) led by Chiang Kai-shek and the communist People’s Liberation Army led by Mao Zedong.
The Long March (1934–1935) marked a significant turning point, showcasing Mao’s leadership and his strategy of guerrilla warfare.
The civil war ended with the communist victory in 1949, leading to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China and turning the country into a one-party socialist state.

The Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) was Mao’s ambitious plan to rapidly industrialise China, resulting in famine and millions of deaths due to poor planning and implementation.
The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) was Mao’s attempt to reassert his power, whereby he encouraged the Red Guards (mostly students) to purge supposed “revisionists” or “counter-revolutionaries,” leading to large-scale chaotic violence.
Mao’s death in 1976 marked the end of the Cultural Revolution and the beginning of the “reform and opening up” under his successor Deng Xiaoping.

Deng Xiaoping’s Market Reforms marked a shift from the central planning system to a “socialist market economy”, resulting in significant economic development.
However, political freedoms remained restricted, highlighted by the Tiananmen Square Massacre (1989), whereby peaceful student-led protests advocating for political reforms were crudely suppressed.
Despite the political repression, Deng’s era has been associated with substantial economic growth and increased global engagement, shaping modern China’s trajectory.