Effects of Media on the Audience

The Hypodermic Needle Theory

The hypodermic needle theory suggests the media has a direct and powerful influence on audiences, like drugs injected straight into the bloodstream.
Media messages are received and accepted unequivocally by passive audiences. This theory correlates with moral panic theories.
Critics argue that this theory ignores the active role of the audience in interpreting media messages and overlooks differences in audience demographics.

Two-Step Flow Theory

The two-step flow theory posits that media messages are interpreted by ‘opinion leaders’ who then pass on their interpretation to wider audiences, acting as intermediaries.
Audiences are not entirely passive - they may discuss and reinterpret media messages within their social networks.
However, this theory still assumes a significant degree of influence of media on public opinion, ignoring people’s ability to resist or counter media influence.

Uses and Gratifications Approach

The uses and gratifications approach suggests that people actively seek out media content that satisfies their specific needs and desires.
Audiences are not a homogenous, passive mass but active participants who select, interpret and use media for their own purposes.
This approach emphasises the power of individuals over their interaction with media, but can underestimate the ability of media to shape audience preferences and desires.

Cultural Effects Model

The cultural effects model suggests that media influence is slow and cumulative, leading to a gradual shaping of perceptions and values over time.
Media doesn’t simply impose ideologies, but works subtly to ‘naturalise’ particular worldviews, creating hegemony.
This model recognises the permeating, long-term effects of media but it’s hard to quantitatively measure such influences.

Reception Analysis

Reception analysis is based on the premise that audiences are not passive recipients of media messages but actively interpret them based on their cultural background and life experiences.
It emphasises terms like ‘dominant’ reading (audience accepts intended meaning), ‘negotiated’ reading (partly accepts), and ‘oppositional’ reading (rejects intended meaning).
This approach recognises the diversity of audience responses, however, decodes can still be influenced by media representation.

Postmodern Views on Media Influence

Postmodernists argue that the lines between reality and media representation have blurred in the era of hyperreality, leading to a media-saturated society.
Media no longer simply reflects or constructs reality, but constitutes reality itself.
Despite this radical claim, it’s argued that majority of content is still produced by powerful institutions implying potential manipulation and influence.