Seed and vegetative propagation

Seed Propagation

Seeds are primary means of reproduction for many plants, responsible for producing offspring with the genetic makeup obtained from both parents.

Seeds encapsulate embryo, food supply, and a protective coating; these components assist in the developmental process.
The germination of seeds is a critical stage involving the absorption of water, activation of enzymes, and the growth of the embryo.
For successful germination, seeds generally require the correct balance of light, temperature, water, and oxygen.
There are several methods to improve germination such as soaking, scarification (scratch the seed coating), and stratification (chilling seeds).
Seed dormancy is a genetically predetermined pause in the growth and development of the seeds to maximise survival and adapt to seasonal changes.

Vegetative or asexual propagation yields offspring genetically identical to the parent plant.

Cuttings is a prevalent technique involving parts of a plant (stem, leaf, or root) induced to form a new plant.
The success of cuttings depends on metabolite concentration, wound responses, and tissue differentiation. Application of rooting hormones improves the effectiveness of this technique.
Layering utilises the principle of forming adventitious roots on stems while being attached to the parent plant; may involve simple layering, air layering, or serpentine layering.
Division is effective for herbaceous perennials and allows the plant to be separated into multiples each of which can grow independently.
Grafting introduces a section of a stem with leaf buds (scion) into the stock of another plant for them to grow together, widely used for fruit trees and roses.
Budding is a type of grafting where a bud is used instead of the shoot.
Micropropagation permits large scale multiplication of plants quickly and is often used to produce pathogen-free plants.

Hybridisation is a controlled method of plant breeding by mating two different species or varieties to create a hybrid, seeking to combine the best traits of both parents.
Genetically modified (GM) plants have had their DNA altered to express a trait not naturally found in the species, offering an increased resistance to pests and/or diseases, or improving nutritional content. Use of GM plants is a subject of ethical controversy.