Change and Continuity in Russia (1881-1917)

Tsarist Russia (1881-1917)

Alexander III (1881-1894) took an extremely conservative approach, emphasising Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationalism.
- Initiated Russification, a policy aimed at assimilating all ethnic minorities.
- He reversed some of the liberal measures undertaken by his father Alexander II.
Nicholas II (1894-1917), Alexander’s son, continued his father’s autocratic rule.
- He was largely indecisive and believed firmly in his God-given right to rule, ignoring the rising calls for political reform.
Industrialisation began under Sergei Witte, Finance Minister from 1892 to 1903, leading to significant social and economic change.
- The construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway improved internal communication and trade.
- However, the rapid industrialisation brought problems such as overcrowding in cities, poor working conditions and growing discontent among the proletariat.

Triggered by the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), causing national humiliation and fuelling political and social unrest.
On Bloody Sunday (January 1905), peaceful protesters presenting a petition to Nicholas II were fired upon by soldiers.
- This spurned a wave of strikes, peasant uprisings, and military mutinies across the country.
Nicholas II was forced to issue the October Manifesto, promising a constitutional reform, creation of a State Duma and civil liberties.

The establishment of the State Duma in 1906 marked a period of constitutional monarchy, though it had limited powers and was often dissolved by Nicholas II.
Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin’s agrarian reforms (1906-1911) intended to create a prosperous and conservative peasant class loyal to the Tsar.
- Despite initial success, the reforms didn’t quell the mounting dissatisfaction with the Tsar’s regime.

Nicholas II’s decision to involve Russia in World War I (1914) had catastrophic results.
- Russian army suffered severe losses, morale plummeted, and there was widespread food and fuel shortage back home.
The war exposed the inefficiency of the Tsarist regime. Nicholas’s decision to personally take command of the army further disassociated him from the populace.
The widespread discontent triggered by Russia’s participation in the war set the stage for the February Revolution of 1917.