Change and Continuity in Russia (1881-1924)

Reign of Alexander III (1881–1894)

Alexander III was a reactionary tsar who pursued a policy of counter-reform following the assassination of his father, Alexander II.
- His reign is known for its Russification policies, which sought to amalgamate the different nationalities within the Russias.
He reversed many of the liberal reforms of Alexander II, reinforcing autocratic rule and making use of oppressive measures such as exile and imprisonment.
A key highlight of this era was the enforcement of the May Laws (1882), which limited the rights of Jewish people in Russia.

Nicholas II was the last tsar of Russia. Despite significant changes and uprisings during his reign, he was not willing to relinquish the autocratic power held by the Romanov Dynasty.
The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) was a significant event, where Russia’s defeat led to increased civil unrest and a credibility crisis for Nicholas.
His attempts to quell protests led to the Bloody Sunday Massacre (1905), a turning point that led to the creation of the Duma and the implementation of the October Manifesto.
- However, his continued resistance to genuine reform and the ineffectiveness of the Duma led to further dissatisfactions.
The First World War amplified Russia’s problems. Widespread dissatisfaction with Nicholas’s handling of the war and its repercussions led to the February Revolution (1917), followed by his abdication.

The Provisional Government, primarily formed by members of the Duma, pledged to continue the war effort, leading to more discontent.
The return of Lenin in April 1917 vastly influenced the political landscape, promoting a radical change with his April Theses that propelled the Bolsheviks into the forefront.
The October Revolution marked a profound shift with the Bolsheviks seizing power, leading to the establishment of a socialist state and the end of the Provisional Government.

Lenin implemented the policy of “War Communism” (1918-1921) to fight the Civil War, resulting in economic hardship.
- Period marked by the Red Terror, a campaign of mass killings, and a famine.
Subsequently, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, allowing some degree of private commerce to revive the economy.
Lenin set up a highly centralized party structure that later Stalin would use to his advantage, solidifying the foundations of Bolshevik rule.
Despite the sustained economic and social turmoil, Lenin’s policies were aimed at implementing Marxist principles and setting the foundations of the USSR, which was formally established in 1922.
Upon his death in 1924, a power struggle ensued amongst the top Bolshevik leaders, marking the end of an era and paving the way for Stalin’s rise to power.